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Field hockey is played with a ball on gravel or natural grass, or on sand-based or water-based artificial turfs, with a small, hard ball. The game is popular among both males and females in many countries of the world, particularly countries in Europe, India, Pakistan, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa and South Asia. In the United States and Canada it is played predominantly by women.
The 116-member governing body is the International Hockey Federation (FIH). Field Hockey has been played at each summer Olympic Games since 1908 (except 1924).
Modern field hockey sticks are J-shaped and constructed of a composite of wood, glass fibre or carbon fibre (or both) and have a curved hook at the playing end, a flat surface on the playing side and curved surface on the rear side.
There are 4000-year-old drawings in Egypt of a game resembling field hockey being played. While modern field hockey appeared in the mid-18th century in England, primarily in schools, it was not until the first half of the 19th century that it became firmly established. The first club was created in 1849 at Blackheath in south-east London.
The 116-member governing body is the International Hockey Federation (FIH). Field Hockey has been played at each summer Olympic Games since 1908 (except 1924).
Modern field hockey sticks are J-shaped and constructed of a composite of wood, glass fibre or carbon fibre (or both) and have a curved hook at the playing end, a flat surface on the playing side and curved surface on the rear side.
There are 4000-year-old drawings in Egypt of a game resembling field hockey being played. While modern field hockey appeared in the mid-18th century in England, primarily in schools, it was not until the first half of the 19th century that it became firmly established. The first club was created in 1849 at Blackheath in south-east London.
Ice hockey is played on ice with a three inch (76.2 mm) diameter rubber disc called a puck between two teams of skaters consisting of a goaltender, two defence players and three forwards. The game is played all over North America, Europe and in many other countries around the world to a greater or lesser extent. It is played with two teams, while 5 skaters and 1 goalie are allowed on the ice at a time. In NHL rules, the periods are 20 minutes long.There are three periods.
The 64-member governing body is the International Ice Hockey Federation, (IIHF). Ice hockey has been played at the Winter Olympics since 1924, and was in the 1920 Summer Olympics. North America's National Hockey League is the strongest professional ice hockey league, drawing top ice hockey players from around the globe. The NHL rules are slightly different from those used in olympic hockey.
Ice hockey sticks are long L-shaped sticks made of wood, graphite, or composites with a blade at the bottom that can lie flat on the playing surface when the stick is held upright and can curve either way as to help a left- or right-handed player gain an advantage.
There are early representations and reports of hockey-type games being played on ice in the Netherlands, and reports from Canada from the beginning of the nineteenth century, but the modern game was initially organized by students at McGill University, Montreal in 1875 and, by two years later, codified the first set of ice hockey rules and organized the first teams.
The 64-member governing body is the International Ice Hockey Federation, (IIHF). Ice hockey has been played at the Winter Olympics since 1924, and was in the 1920 Summer Olympics. North America's National Hockey League is the strongest professional ice hockey league, drawing top ice hockey players from around the globe. The NHL rules are slightly different from those used in olympic hockey.
Ice hockey sticks are long L-shaped sticks made of wood, graphite, or composites with a blade at the bottom that can lie flat on the playing surface when the stick is held upright and can curve either way as to help a left- or right-handed player gain an advantage.
There are early representations and reports of hockey-type games being played on ice in the Netherlands, and reports from Canada from the beginning of the nineteenth century, but the modern game was initially organized by students at McGill University, Montreal in 1875 and, by two years later, codified the first set of ice hockey rules and organized the first teams.
Inline hockey is a variation of roller hockey very similar to ice hockey, from which it is derived. Inline hockey is played by two teams, consisting of four skaters and one goalie, on a dry rink divided into two halves by a center line, with one net at each end of the rink. The game is played in four 15-minute periods with a variation of the ice hockey off-side rule. Icings are also called, but are usually referred to as illegal clearing. For rink dimensions and an overview of the rules of the game, see IIHF Inline Rules (official rules). Some leagues and competitions do not follow the IIHF regulations, in particular USA Inline and Canada Inline.
Other forms of hockey
Other games derived from hockey or its predecessors include the following:
Ball hockey is played in a gym using sticks and a ball
Air hockey is played indoors with a puck on an air-cushion table.
Bandy is played with a ball on a football-sized ice arena, typically outdoors. It is in many ways field hockey played on ice.
Broomball is played on an ice hockey rink, but with a ball instead of a puck and a "broom" (actually a stick with a small plastic implement on the end) in place of the ice hockey stick. Instead of using skates, special shoes are used that have very soft rubbery soles to maximize grip while running around.
Bubble hockey is played in a plastic sealed table with the 'players' being moved by the use of pushing and turning rods.
Floorball, or floor hockey, is a form of hockey played in a gymnasium using a plastic puck or hollow ball, and plastic sticks. It is played in sport halls.
Foot hockey is played using a bald tennis ball or rolled up pair of socks and using only the feet. It is popular at elementary schools in the winter.
Gym hockey is a form of ice hockey played in a gymnasium. It uses a plastic puck and plastic sticks.
Hurling and Camogie are Irish games bearing some resemblance to - and notable differences from - hockey.
Indoor field hockey is an indoor variation of field hockey.
Inline hockey, played ideally in an indoor rink (plastic surface) or outdoor cement rink with a plastic puck. Using inline roller skates, and is often played by ice hockey players for training purposes when ice is not available.
Mini hockey (or knee hockey) is a form of hockey which is played in basements of houses. Players get down on their knees, using a miniature plastic stick, usually about 15 inches (38 cm) long and a small blue ball or a soft, fabric covered mini puck. They shoot into miniature goals as well. This is popular throughout North America, though it has not yet made the jump to Europe.
PowerHockey is a form of hockey for persons requiring the use of an electric (power) wheelchair in daily life. PowerHockey is a competitive sports opportunity for the physically disabled.
Ringette is an ice hockey variant that was designed for female players; it uses a straight stick and a rubber ring in place of a puck. Note: Ringette distances itself from hockey as it has its own set of rules and is closely related to a mix of lacrosse and basketball.
Rinkball is a Scandinavian team sport, played in an ice hockey rink with a ball.
Road hockey is a version of ice hockey played (most typically) on residential streets with or without inline skates, on bare pavement. Games are usually informal with no referee and no set teams. Because the game is played in the middle of the road, it can be interrupted by traffic, at which point someone will yell "car" and players move to the side of the road to allow the vehicle to pass.
Roller hockey is a category which includes two rollersports: One is played on inline skates Inline hockey and the other is played on quad skates Roller hockey (Quad).
Shinny is an informal version of ice hockey.
Shinty is a Scottish Highlands game
Skater hockey is a variant of inline hockey, played with a ball.
Sledge hockey is a form of ice hockey played by the disabled. The players sit on sleds, and push themselves up and down the ice with picks on the butt end of their shortened hockey sticks. The game is played with many of the same rules as regular ice hockey.
Spongee is a cross between ice hockey and broomball and is most popular in Manitoba, Canada. A stick and puck are used as in hockey (the puck is a softer version called a "sponge puck"), and the same soft-soled shoes used in broomball are worn. The rules are basically the same as ice hockey, but one variation has an extra player on the ice called a "rover".
Table hockey is played indoors with a table-top game.
Underwater hockey is played on the bottom of a swimming pool.
Other games derived from hockey or its predecessors include the following:
Ball hockey is played in a gym using sticks and a ball
Air hockey is played indoors with a puck on an air-cushion table.
Bandy is played with a ball on a football-sized ice arena, typically outdoors. It is in many ways field hockey played on ice.
Broomball is played on an ice hockey rink, but with a ball instead of a puck and a "broom" (actually a stick with a small plastic implement on the end) in place of the ice hockey stick. Instead of using skates, special shoes are used that have very soft rubbery soles to maximize grip while running around.
Bubble hockey is played in a plastic sealed table with the 'players' being moved by the use of pushing and turning rods.
Floorball, or floor hockey, is a form of hockey played in a gymnasium using a plastic puck or hollow ball, and plastic sticks. It is played in sport halls.
Foot hockey is played using a bald tennis ball or rolled up pair of socks and using only the feet. It is popular at elementary schools in the winter.
Gym hockey is a form of ice hockey played in a gymnasium. It uses a plastic puck and plastic sticks.
Hurling and Camogie are Irish games bearing some resemblance to - and notable differences from - hockey.
Indoor field hockey is an indoor variation of field hockey.
Inline hockey, played ideally in an indoor rink (plastic surface) or outdoor cement rink with a plastic puck. Using inline roller skates, and is often played by ice hockey players for training purposes when ice is not available.
Mini hockey (or knee hockey) is a form of hockey which is played in basements of houses. Players get down on their knees, using a miniature plastic stick, usually about 15 inches (38 cm) long and a small blue ball or a soft, fabric covered mini puck. They shoot into miniature goals as well. This is popular throughout North America, though it has not yet made the jump to Europe.
PowerHockey is a form of hockey for persons requiring the use of an electric (power) wheelchair in daily life. PowerHockey is a competitive sports opportunity for the physically disabled.
Ringette is an ice hockey variant that was designed for female players; it uses a straight stick and a rubber ring in place of a puck. Note: Ringette distances itself from hockey as it has its own set of rules and is closely related to a mix of lacrosse and basketball.
Rinkball is a Scandinavian team sport, played in an ice hockey rink with a ball.
Road hockey is a version of ice hockey played (most typically) on residential streets with or without inline skates, on bare pavement. Games are usually informal with no referee and no set teams. Because the game is played in the middle of the road, it can be interrupted by traffic, at which point someone will yell "car" and players move to the side of the road to allow the vehicle to pass.
Roller hockey is a category which includes two rollersports: One is played on inline skates Inline hockey and the other is played on quad skates Roller hockey (Quad).
Shinny is an informal version of ice hockey.
Shinty is a Scottish Highlands game
Skater hockey is a variant of inline hockey, played with a ball.
Sledge hockey is a form of ice hockey played by the disabled. The players sit on sleds, and push themselves up and down the ice with picks on the butt end of their shortened hockey sticks. The game is played with many of the same rules as regular ice hockey.
Spongee is a cross between ice hockey and broomball and is most popular in Manitoba, Canada. A stick and puck are used as in hockey (the puck is a softer version called a "sponge puck"), and the same soft-soled shoes used in broomball are worn. The rules are basically the same as ice hockey, but one variation has an extra player on the ice called a "rover".
Table hockey is played indoors with a table-top game.
Underwater hockey is played on the bottom of a swimming pool.
oni si tu fakt mozu robit, co chcu? to bol strasny trest, zmazat pripevky... :o((
je to spam topic,musis rozlisovat medzi pisanim do spam topicu a urazkov, co sa zatial riesi
bol uz na to upozorneny a uz spamuje v anglictine ;)
What can you own?
[edit] Personal Property (objects)
Main article: Personal property
Personal property is a type of property. In the common law systems personal property may also be called chattels. Under the common law, the only way to gain title to chattels was by writing one's name on them with a permanent marker. It is distinguished from real property, or real estate. In the civil law systems personal property is often called movable property or movables - any property that can be moved from one location or another. This term is in distinction with immovable property or immovables, such as land and buildings.
Personal property may be classified in a variety of ways, such as goods, money, negotiable instruments, securities, and intangible assets including choses in action.
[edit] Land Ownership
Main article: Real estate
Real estate or immovable property is a legal term (in some jurisdictions) that encompasses land along with anything permanently affixed to the land, such as buildings. Real estate (immovable property) is often considered synonymous with real property (also sometimes called realty), in contrast with personal property (also sometimes called chattel or personalty). However, for technical purposes, some people prefer to distinguish real estate, referring to the land and fixtures themselves, from real property, referring to ownership rights over real estate. The terms real estate and real property are used primarily in common law, while civil law jurisdictions refer instead to immovable property.
In law, the word real means relating to a thing (from Latin res, matter or thing), as distinguished from a person. Thus the law broadly distinguishes between [real property] (land and anything affixed to it) and [personal property] (everything else, e.g., clothing, furniture, money). The conceptual difference was between immovable property, which would transfer title along with the land, and movable property, which a person would retain title to. (The word is not derived from the notion of land having historically been "royal" property. The word royal — and its Spanish cognate real — come from the unrelated Latin word rex, meaning king.)
With the development of private property ownership, real estate has become a major area of business.
[edit] Corporations and Legal Entities
An individual or group of individuals can own corporations and other legal entities. A legal entity is a legal construct through which the law allows a group of natural persons to act as if it were an individual for certain purposes. Some companies and entities are owned privately by the individuals who registered them with the government while other companies are owned publicly.
A public company is a company owned by any member of the public who wishes to purchase stock in that company rather than by a relatively few individuals. A company that is owned by stockholders who are members of the general public and trade shares publicly, often through a listing on a stock exchange. Ownership is open to anyone who has the money and inclination to buy shares in the company. It is differentiated from privately held companies where the shares are held by a small group of individuals often members of one or a small group of families or otherwise related individuals (or other companies). For a discussion of the British and Irish variant of this type of company, see public limited company.
[edit] Intellectual Property
Main article: Intellectual property
Intellectual (IP) property (Please see:http://www.gnu.org/philosophy/not-ipr.xhtml) refers to a legal entitlement which sometimes attaches to the expressed form of an idea, or to some other intangible subject matter. This legal entitlement generally enables its holder to exercise exclusive rights of use in relation to the subject matter of the IP. The term intellectual property reflects the idea that this subject matter is the product of the mind or the intellect, and that IP rights may be protected at law in the same way as any other form of property.
Intellectual property laws confer a bundle of exclusive rights in relation to the particular form or manner in which ideas or information are expressed or manifested, and not in relation to the ideas or concepts themselves (see idea-expression divide). It is therefore important to note that the term "intellectual property" denotes the specific legal rights which authors, inventors and other IP holders may hold and exercise, and not the intellectual work itself.
Intellectual property laws are designed to protect different forms of intangible subject matter, although in some cases there is a degree of overlap.
copyright may subsist in creative and artistic works (eg. books, movies, music, paintings, photographs and software), giving a copyright holder the exclusive right to control reproduction or adaptation of such works for a certain period of time.
A patent may be granted in relation to an invention that is new, useful and not simply an obvious advancement over what exisited when the application was filed. A patent gives the holder an exclusive right to commercially exploit the invention for a certain period of time (typically 20 years from the filing date of a patent application).
A trademark is a distinctive sign which is used to distinguish the products or services of one business from those of another business.
An industrial design right protects the form of appearance, style or design of an industrial object (eg. spare parts, furniture or textiles).
A trade secret (also known as "confidential information") is an item of confidential information concerning the commercial practices or proprietary knowledge of a business.
Patents, trademarks and designs fall into a particular subset of intellectual property known as industrial property.
Like other forms of property, intellectual property (or rather the exclusive rights which subsist in the IP) can be transferred (with or without consideration) or licensed to third parties. In some jurisdictions it may also be possible to use intellectual property as security for a loan.
The basic public policy rationale for the protection of intellectual property is that IP laws facilitate and encourage disclosure of innovation into the public domain for the common good, by granting authors and inventors exclusive rights to exploit their works and invention for a limited period.
However, various schools of thought are critical of the very concept of intellectual property, and some characterise IP as intellectual protectionism. There is ongoing debate as to whether IP laws truly operate to confer the stated public benefits, and whether the protection they are said to provide is appropriate in the context of innovation derived from such things as traditional knowledge and folklore, and patents for software and business methods. Manifestations of this controversy can be seen in the way different jurisdictions decide whether to grant intellectual property protection in relation to subject matter of this kind, and the North-South divide on issues of the role and scope of intellectual property laws.
[edit] Chattel Slavery
Main article: Chattel slavery
The living human body is, in most modern societies, considered something which cannot be the property of anyone but the person whose body it is. This is in contradistinction to chattel slavery. Chattel slavery is a type of slavery defined as the absolute legal ownership of a person or persons, including the legal right to buy and sell them. The slaves do not have the freedom to live life as they choose, but as they are instructed by their owners. In most countries, chattel slaves are considered as movable property. Slavery almost always occurs for the purpose of securing the labour of the slave.
Slavery is currently illegal in every country around the world, however, up until the 19th century slavery and ownership of people had existed in one form or another in nearly every society on earth.
[edit] Who Can Own Property?
[edit] Personal Ownership
In Western societies both men and women can own property, however, in some societies only adult men may own property. In other societies (such as the Haudenosaunee), property is matrilinear and passed on from mother to daughter.
[edit] Ownership by Corporations and Legal Entities
Legal entities, such as corporations, trusts, partnerships, religions, and nations (or governments) can own property in various societies past and present. Although corporations and other legal entities are owned or controlled by individuals or groups of individuals they are allowed to own their own property just as natural people are able to. The advantage in placing the ownership of an asset in the name of an entity is that the asset is protected from law suits against the owner of the entity. If the owner of the entity is personally sued the asset cannot be taken in the law suit.
When there is risk involved in the ownership of an asset as in the case of investment real estate the ownership of that asset is often made in the name of a corporate entity. Real estate property investors often form a corporation or other entity for the sole purpose of purchasing a single building. Rather than buying the building in the investor's personal name the investor will place the corporations' name on the deed. Since the corporation is a separate entity in the eyes of the law if a tenant is hurt on the premises and sues the owner of the building they are suing the corporation and not the investor. This protects the investor from losing many properties from one law suit.
[edit] Communal Ownership
Communal ownership of property occurs when a group of people share the ownership of property amongst each other. Any and every member of the group is free to use the property when they want but also those individuals agree to allow all others in the group to use the property when that person wants. Although communal ownership of property is not as widespread as individual ownership of property both forms of ownership exist in most societies. In America, for example, national parks and publicly owned buildings such as libraries are communally owned by all Americans. In New York City a common form of real estate ownership is a cooperative (also co-operative or co-op). A co-op is a group of persons who join together, or co-operate, to own a building for mutual benefit. In an ideal communist nation the means of production of goods would be owned communally by all people of that nation.
One criticism of the concept of communal ownership is the Tragedy of the Commons where unrestricted access to a resource such as a pasture ultimately dooms the resource because of over-exploitation. This occurs because the benefits of exploitation accrue to individuals, while the costs of exploitation are distributed between all those exploiting the resource.
[edit] Social Stigmas
In modern Western popular culture some people (principally among the political left) believe that exclusive ownership of property underlies much social injustice, and facilitates tyranny and oppression on an individual and societal scale. Others consider the striving to achieve greater ownership of wealth as the driving factor behind human technological advancement and increasing standards of living.
[edit] Ownership Society
Ownership society is a slogan for a model of society promoted by United States President George W. Bush. It takes as lead values personal responsibility, economic liberty, and the owning of property. The ownership society discussed by Bush also extends to certain proposals of specific models of health care and social security. Critics have claimed that Bush's agenda for an ownership society also includes extending tax cuts, allowing wealthy Americans to shelter income from tax, and using the tax code to curtail the government's role in health care and retirement saving. Some say that the ultimate purpose of these proposals is the abolition of the graduated income tax, a progressive tax, and its replacement with a structurally simpler flat tax.
[edit] Societies Without Ownership
A modern myth is that some societies, notably Native American ones, appeared to exist without the concept of personal ownership. Members of a society would feel free to take any objects they had need of, and expect them to be taken by others. [citation needed] Recently, however, researchers have started to question just how collectivist Native American societies really were. Citing earlier studies done by anthropologists and historians "who were able to interview tribal members who had lived in pre-reservation Indian society", they argue that in fact, "most if not all North American indigenous peoples had a strong belief in individual property rights and ownership." [1] These researchers further assert that Native American collectivism is a myth originating from the first encounters with tribes who, because of their hunting-orientation "did not view land as an important asset", and indeed, did not have a private property system with regards to land. The collectivist myth was initially propagated by reporters and politicians who never actually had contact with Native Americans and then made into a reality by the collectivist property rights system forced on Indians by the 1934 Indian Reorganization Act.
[edit] See also
Ownership society
Public ownership
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ownership"
[edit] Personal Property (objects)
Main article: Personal property
Personal property is a type of property. In the common law systems personal property may also be called chattels. Under the common law, the only way to gain title to chattels was by writing one's name on them with a permanent marker. It is distinguished from real property, or real estate. In the civil law systems personal property is often called movable property or movables - any property that can be moved from one location or another. This term is in distinction with immovable property or immovables, such as land and buildings.
Personal property may be classified in a variety of ways, such as goods, money, negotiable instruments, securities, and intangible assets including choses in action.
[edit] Land Ownership
Main article: Real estate
Real estate or immovable property is a legal term (in some jurisdictions) that encompasses land along with anything permanently affixed to the land, such as buildings. Real estate (immovable property) is often considered synonymous with real property (also sometimes called realty), in contrast with personal property (also sometimes called chattel or personalty). However, for technical purposes, some people prefer to distinguish real estate, referring to the land and fixtures themselves, from real property, referring to ownership rights over real estate. The terms real estate and real property are used primarily in common law, while civil law jurisdictions refer instead to immovable property.
In law, the word real means relating to a thing (from Latin res, matter or thing), as distinguished from a person. Thus the law broadly distinguishes between [real property] (land and anything affixed to it) and [personal property] (everything else, e.g., clothing, furniture, money). The conceptual difference was between immovable property, which would transfer title along with the land, and movable property, which a person would retain title to. (The word is not derived from the notion of land having historically been "royal" property. The word royal — and its Spanish cognate real — come from the unrelated Latin word rex, meaning king.)
With the development of private property ownership, real estate has become a major area of business.
[edit] Corporations and Legal Entities
An individual or group of individuals can own corporations and other legal entities. A legal entity is a legal construct through which the law allows a group of natural persons to act as if it were an individual for certain purposes. Some companies and entities are owned privately by the individuals who registered them with the government while other companies are owned publicly.
A public company is a company owned by any member of the public who wishes to purchase stock in that company rather than by a relatively few individuals. A company that is owned by stockholders who are members of the general public and trade shares publicly, often through a listing on a stock exchange. Ownership is open to anyone who has the money and inclination to buy shares in the company. It is differentiated from privately held companies where the shares are held by a small group of individuals often members of one or a small group of families or otherwise related individuals (or other companies). For a discussion of the British and Irish variant of this type of company, see public limited company.
[edit] Intellectual Property
Main article: Intellectual property
Intellectual (IP) property (Please see:http://www.gnu.org/philosophy/not-ipr.xhtml) refers to a legal entitlement which sometimes attaches to the expressed form of an idea, or to some other intangible subject matter. This legal entitlement generally enables its holder to exercise exclusive rights of use in relation to the subject matter of the IP. The term intellectual property reflects the idea that this subject matter is the product of the mind or the intellect, and that IP rights may be protected at law in the same way as any other form of property.
Intellectual property laws confer a bundle of exclusive rights in relation to the particular form or manner in which ideas or information are expressed or manifested, and not in relation to the ideas or concepts themselves (see idea-expression divide). It is therefore important to note that the term "intellectual property" denotes the specific legal rights which authors, inventors and other IP holders may hold and exercise, and not the intellectual work itself.
Intellectual property laws are designed to protect different forms of intangible subject matter, although in some cases there is a degree of overlap.
copyright may subsist in creative and artistic works (eg. books, movies, music, paintings, photographs and software), giving a copyright holder the exclusive right to control reproduction or adaptation of such works for a certain period of time.
A patent may be granted in relation to an invention that is new, useful and not simply an obvious advancement over what exisited when the application was filed. A patent gives the holder an exclusive right to commercially exploit the invention for a certain period of time (typically 20 years from the filing date of a patent application).
A trademark is a distinctive sign which is used to distinguish the products or services of one business from those of another business.
An industrial design right protects the form of appearance, style or design of an industrial object (eg. spare parts, furniture or textiles).
A trade secret (also known as "confidential information") is an item of confidential information concerning the commercial practices or proprietary knowledge of a business.
Patents, trademarks and designs fall into a particular subset of intellectual property known as industrial property.
Like other forms of property, intellectual property (or rather the exclusive rights which subsist in the IP) can be transferred (with or without consideration) or licensed to third parties. In some jurisdictions it may also be possible to use intellectual property as security for a loan.
The basic public policy rationale for the protection of intellectual property is that IP laws facilitate and encourage disclosure of innovation into the public domain for the common good, by granting authors and inventors exclusive rights to exploit their works and invention for a limited period.
However, various schools of thought are critical of the very concept of intellectual property, and some characterise IP as intellectual protectionism. There is ongoing debate as to whether IP laws truly operate to confer the stated public benefits, and whether the protection they are said to provide is appropriate in the context of innovation derived from such things as traditional knowledge and folklore, and patents for software and business methods. Manifestations of this controversy can be seen in the way different jurisdictions decide whether to grant intellectual property protection in relation to subject matter of this kind, and the North-South divide on issues of the role and scope of intellectual property laws.
[edit] Chattel Slavery
Main article: Chattel slavery
The living human body is, in most modern societies, considered something which cannot be the property of anyone but the person whose body it is. This is in contradistinction to chattel slavery. Chattel slavery is a type of slavery defined as the absolute legal ownership of a person or persons, including the legal right to buy and sell them. The slaves do not have the freedom to live life as they choose, but as they are instructed by their owners. In most countries, chattel slaves are considered as movable property. Slavery almost always occurs for the purpose of securing the labour of the slave.
Slavery is currently illegal in every country around the world, however, up until the 19th century slavery and ownership of people had existed in one form or another in nearly every society on earth.
[edit] Who Can Own Property?
[edit] Personal Ownership
In Western societies both men and women can own property, however, in some societies only adult men may own property. In other societies (such as the Haudenosaunee), property is matrilinear and passed on from mother to daughter.
[edit] Ownership by Corporations and Legal Entities
Legal entities, such as corporations, trusts, partnerships, religions, and nations (or governments) can own property in various societies past and present. Although corporations and other legal entities are owned or controlled by individuals or groups of individuals they are allowed to own their own property just as natural people are able to. The advantage in placing the ownership of an asset in the name of an entity is that the asset is protected from law suits against the owner of the entity. If the owner of the entity is personally sued the asset cannot be taken in the law suit.
When there is risk involved in the ownership of an asset as in the case of investment real estate the ownership of that asset is often made in the name of a corporate entity. Real estate property investors often form a corporation or other entity for the sole purpose of purchasing a single building. Rather than buying the building in the investor's personal name the investor will place the corporations' name on the deed. Since the corporation is a separate entity in the eyes of the law if a tenant is hurt on the premises and sues the owner of the building they are suing the corporation and not the investor. This protects the investor from losing many properties from one law suit.
[edit] Communal Ownership
Communal ownership of property occurs when a group of people share the ownership of property amongst each other. Any and every member of the group is free to use the property when they want but also those individuals agree to allow all others in the group to use the property when that person wants. Although communal ownership of property is not as widespread as individual ownership of property both forms of ownership exist in most societies. In America, for example, national parks and publicly owned buildings such as libraries are communally owned by all Americans. In New York City a common form of real estate ownership is a cooperative (also co-operative or co-op). A co-op is a group of persons who join together, or co-operate, to own a building for mutual benefit. In an ideal communist nation the means of production of goods would be owned communally by all people of that nation.
One criticism of the concept of communal ownership is the Tragedy of the Commons where unrestricted access to a resource such as a pasture ultimately dooms the resource because of over-exploitation. This occurs because the benefits of exploitation accrue to individuals, while the costs of exploitation are distributed between all those exploiting the resource.
[edit] Social Stigmas
In modern Western popular culture some people (principally among the political left) believe that exclusive ownership of property underlies much social injustice, and facilitates tyranny and oppression on an individual and societal scale. Others consider the striving to achieve greater ownership of wealth as the driving factor behind human technological advancement and increasing standards of living.
[edit] Ownership Society
Ownership society is a slogan for a model of society promoted by United States President George W. Bush. It takes as lead values personal responsibility, economic liberty, and the owning of property. The ownership society discussed by Bush also extends to certain proposals of specific models of health care and social security. Critics have claimed that Bush's agenda for an ownership society also includes extending tax cuts, allowing wealthy Americans to shelter income from tax, and using the tax code to curtail the government's role in health care and retirement saving. Some say that the ultimate purpose of these proposals is the abolition of the graduated income tax, a progressive tax, and its replacement with a structurally simpler flat tax.
[edit] Societies Without Ownership
A modern myth is that some societies, notably Native American ones, appeared to exist without the concept of personal ownership. Members of a society would feel free to take any objects they had need of, and expect them to be taken by others. [citation needed] Recently, however, researchers have started to question just how collectivist Native American societies really were. Citing earlier studies done by anthropologists and historians "who were able to interview tribal members who had lived in pre-reservation Indian society", they argue that in fact, "most if not all North American indigenous peoples had a strong belief in individual property rights and ownership." [1] These researchers further assert that Native American collectivism is a myth originating from the first encounters with tribes who, because of their hunting-orientation "did not view land as an important asset", and indeed, did not have a private property system with regards to land. The collectivist myth was initially propagated by reporters and politicians who never actually had contact with Native Americans and then made into a reality by the collectivist property rights system forced on Indians by the 1934 Indian Reorganization Act.
[edit] See also
Ownership society
Public ownership
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ownership"
Pussy is a popular English word meaning cat or vagina, among other definitions.
Etymology
The origins of the word are unknown.
The Oxford English Dictionary (OED) says that the word puss is common to several Germanic languages, usually as a call name for the cat — not a synonym for "cat", as it is in English.
The OED and Webster's Third International Dictionary point out similarities with words including:-
Old Norse, pūss (pocket)
Old Saxon pūse (vulva)
Old English pusa (bag)
The medieval French word pucelle referred to a young adolescent girl or a virgin, although this comes from a slang term for virginity puce (= flea) rather than referring to cats. In the 17th century, the term was also used to refer to women in general.
Uses
Cat and similar
According to the Oxford English Dictionary, puss was used as a "call-name" for cats in both German and English, but pussy was used in English more as a synonym for "cat": compare "pussycat". In addition to cats, the word was also used for rabbits and hares as well as a humorous name for tigers. In the 19th century, according to the Oxford English Dictionary, the meaning was extended "in childish speech, applied to anything soft and furry", as in pussy willow. In thieves' slang, it meant "fur coat".
To pussyfoot around the question or point means to be evasive, cautious, or conceal one's opinions. The reference is to the careful soft tread of the cat and has no vulgar implications, other than obvious ties to weakness, which "pussy" sometimes connotes.
Genitalia
The word "pussy" often refers to the aforementioned portions of the female anatomy. It was not included in George Carlin's list of seven dirty words, as it can be used in the sense of kitty, and George Carlin's list was remarking upon words that can never be said on television. Most dictionaries mark the meaning "vulva" as "vulgar" or "offensive" and its use is frowned upon in polite company.
Weakness
The meaning "weak or cowardly person" has a separate etymology. Websters 1913 Revised Unabridged Dictionary lists this version of pussy as an alternate spelling of "pursy," an otherwise obsolete English word meaning "fat and short-breathed; fat, short, and thick; swelled with pampering ..."[1] The interpetation is often misconstrued, it contains multi-meanings which some are consider derogatory. [2] In fact, when pussy appears in the earlier 1828 edition of the dictionary, this definition is presented for the word, while the older pursy is simply offered as a "corrupt orthography."
Pursy (pronounced with a short u, and with the r slurred or silent) was in turn derived from an Old French word variously spelled pourcif, poulsif, poussif, meaning "to push, thrust, or heave." In this sense, it is cognate with the modern French verb pousser, also meaning "to push."
It has been informally suggested in folk etymology that it is a shortened form of the word "pusillanimous" which is defined by the Oxford English Dictionary as "showing a lack of courage or determination" or cowardly. This meaning would seem to be consistent with the intention of the word "pussy" when used as an insult toward a man. This term, however, comes from the Latin words pusillus (petty) and animus (spirit) and is unrelated to the Germanic derivations of puss and pussy.
The word pussy can also be used in a derogatory sense to refer to a male who is not considered sufficiently masculine (see Gender role). When used in this sense, it carries the implication of being easily fatigued, weak or cowardly.
Men dominated by women (particularly their partners or spouses and at one time referred to as 'Hen-pecked') can be referred to as pussy-whipped (or simply whipped in slightly more polite society or media).
Word-play between meanings
The Barrison Sisters lift their dresses to show a live kitten, a double entendre of "pussy".
Mrs Slocombe in the BBC comedy Are You Being Served? She was frequently concerned with the welfare of her pussy.The double entendre has been used for over a hundred years by performers, including the late 19th-century vaudeville act, the Barrison Sisters, who performed the notorious routine "Do You Want To See My Pussy?" (see entry for more); the Funkadelic song "Pussy", and the character Pussy Galore in the James Bond series as well as the 1983 film, Octopussy. On his album, The Gold Experience, Prince sings a song about a female protagonist named Pussy Control. The Belgian band, Lords of Acid, also has a song called Pussy, almost every line of which is a double entendre. [3]
One surprisingly risqué joke, especially for 1940, appears in the W.C. Fields movie, The Bank Dick. The bar that Fields frequently attends (tended by Shemp Howard) is called the "Black Pussy Cat", with "Black Pussy" arched over "Cat" to give it some visual separation. However, it was apparently tame enough that the Hays Office did not take action.
Another notable usage is in the British comedy Are You Being Served?. The character Mrs. Slocombe is often heard to be concerned with the welfare of her pussy (cat), presumably unaware of the secondary meaning. This joke was also used with other cast members of the show, showing their unawareness, with lines such as "I hope this (meeting) won't take very long, it's very unfair on Mrs. Slocombe's pussy". In the episode “Calling All Customers,” Mrs. Slocombe calls a lonely trucker on Mr. Humphries’ CB radio, setting up perhaps the most intricate pussy joke of the series. He (the trucker) tells her he’s hauling dynamite, and proceeds to ask her about her interests. She notes gardening, but that her pussy is her favorite hobby. She exclaims that she has a mantle full of trophies and that it wins a medal every time she shows it. Then follows the sound of screeching tires and an explosion. Mr. Humphries laments “He’s pulled off for a coffee.”
The double meaning of the word was exploited in a 2005 episode of the American comedy program Arrested Development, where the word was censored if used as an insult, but not censored if used to mean sweet or gentle (as in pussycat). This also can apply to using pussy as a word for weak. On the TV series Drawn Together, the episode "Alzheimer's That Ends Well" features yet another instance of the above. In this episode, Princess Clara receives an "extreme vaginal makeover," but continually exclaims that something is wrong. In one scene, she claims it has freckles, to which Wooldoor replies, "Lots of pussies have freckles, like Ron Howard." In the South Park episode "Fun with Veal", after giving up meat temporarily, Stan Marsh discovers his body is covered in sores. The doctor informs Stan that the sores are actually tiny vaginas, and that not eating meat is turning Stan into "a giant pussy". In neither of these latter two instances is the word censored.
See also
Profanity
Obscenity
Pussy Galore (disambiguation)
Bitch and Animal, a pair of singers who sang songs including "Pussy Manifesto"
External links
Don't be so beastly! by Justine Hankins. The Guardian, June 14, 2003
Pussy This, Pussy That by Aura Bogado, 2002.
Complete lyrics to the George Clinton song from the Motherpage
Etymology
The origins of the word are unknown.
The Oxford English Dictionary (OED) says that the word puss is common to several Germanic languages, usually as a call name for the cat — not a synonym for "cat", as it is in English.
The OED and Webster's Third International Dictionary point out similarities with words including:-
Old Norse, pūss (pocket)
Old Saxon pūse (vulva)
Old English pusa (bag)
The medieval French word pucelle referred to a young adolescent girl or a virgin, although this comes from a slang term for virginity puce (= flea) rather than referring to cats. In the 17th century, the term was also used to refer to women in general.
Uses
Cat and similar
According to the Oxford English Dictionary, puss was used as a "call-name" for cats in both German and English, but pussy was used in English more as a synonym for "cat": compare "pussycat". In addition to cats, the word was also used for rabbits and hares as well as a humorous name for tigers. In the 19th century, according to the Oxford English Dictionary, the meaning was extended "in childish speech, applied to anything soft and furry", as in pussy willow. In thieves' slang, it meant "fur coat".
To pussyfoot around the question or point means to be evasive, cautious, or conceal one's opinions. The reference is to the careful soft tread of the cat and has no vulgar implications, other than obvious ties to weakness, which "pussy" sometimes connotes.
Genitalia
The word "pussy" often refers to the aforementioned portions of the female anatomy. It was not included in George Carlin's list of seven dirty words, as it can be used in the sense of kitty, and George Carlin's list was remarking upon words that can never be said on television. Most dictionaries mark the meaning "vulva" as "vulgar" or "offensive" and its use is frowned upon in polite company.
Weakness
The meaning "weak or cowardly person" has a separate etymology. Websters 1913 Revised Unabridged Dictionary lists this version of pussy as an alternate spelling of "pursy," an otherwise obsolete English word meaning "fat and short-breathed; fat, short, and thick; swelled with pampering ..."[1] The interpetation is often misconstrued, it contains multi-meanings which some are consider derogatory. [2] In fact, when pussy appears in the earlier 1828 edition of the dictionary, this definition is presented for the word, while the older pursy is simply offered as a "corrupt orthography."
Pursy (pronounced with a short u, and with the r slurred or silent) was in turn derived from an Old French word variously spelled pourcif, poulsif, poussif, meaning "to push, thrust, or heave." In this sense, it is cognate with the modern French verb pousser, also meaning "to push."
It has been informally suggested in folk etymology that it is a shortened form of the word "pusillanimous" which is defined by the Oxford English Dictionary as "showing a lack of courage or determination" or cowardly. This meaning would seem to be consistent with the intention of the word "pussy" when used as an insult toward a man. This term, however, comes from the Latin words pusillus (petty) and animus (spirit) and is unrelated to the Germanic derivations of puss and pussy.
The word pussy can also be used in a derogatory sense to refer to a male who is not considered sufficiently masculine (see Gender role). When used in this sense, it carries the implication of being easily fatigued, weak or cowardly.
Men dominated by women (particularly their partners or spouses and at one time referred to as 'Hen-pecked') can be referred to as pussy-whipped (or simply whipped in slightly more polite society or media).
Word-play between meanings
The Barrison Sisters lift their dresses to show a live kitten, a double entendre of "pussy".
Mrs Slocombe in the BBC comedy Are You Being Served? She was frequently concerned with the welfare of her pussy.The double entendre has been used for over a hundred years by performers, including the late 19th-century vaudeville act, the Barrison Sisters, who performed the notorious routine "Do You Want To See My Pussy?" (see entry for more); the Funkadelic song "Pussy", and the character Pussy Galore in the James Bond series as well as the 1983 film, Octopussy. On his album, The Gold Experience, Prince sings a song about a female protagonist named Pussy Control. The Belgian band, Lords of Acid, also has a song called Pussy, almost every line of which is a double entendre. [3]
One surprisingly risqué joke, especially for 1940, appears in the W.C. Fields movie, The Bank Dick. The bar that Fields frequently attends (tended by Shemp Howard) is called the "Black Pussy Cat", with "Black Pussy" arched over "Cat" to give it some visual separation. However, it was apparently tame enough that the Hays Office did not take action.
Another notable usage is in the British comedy Are You Being Served?. The character Mrs. Slocombe is often heard to be concerned with the welfare of her pussy (cat), presumably unaware of the secondary meaning. This joke was also used with other cast members of the show, showing their unawareness, with lines such as "I hope this (meeting) won't take very long, it's very unfair on Mrs. Slocombe's pussy". In the episode “Calling All Customers,” Mrs. Slocombe calls a lonely trucker on Mr. Humphries’ CB radio, setting up perhaps the most intricate pussy joke of the series. He (the trucker) tells her he’s hauling dynamite, and proceeds to ask her about her interests. She notes gardening, but that her pussy is her favorite hobby. She exclaims that she has a mantle full of trophies and that it wins a medal every time she shows it. Then follows the sound of screeching tires and an explosion. Mr. Humphries laments “He’s pulled off for a coffee.”
The double meaning of the word was exploited in a 2005 episode of the American comedy program Arrested Development, where the word was censored if used as an insult, but not censored if used to mean sweet or gentle (as in pussycat). This also can apply to using pussy as a word for weak. On the TV series Drawn Together, the episode "Alzheimer's That Ends Well" features yet another instance of the above. In this episode, Princess Clara receives an "extreme vaginal makeover," but continually exclaims that something is wrong. In one scene, she claims it has freckles, to which Wooldoor replies, "Lots of pussies have freckles, like Ron Howard." In the South Park episode "Fun with Veal", after giving up meat temporarily, Stan Marsh discovers his body is covered in sores. The doctor informs Stan that the sores are actually tiny vaginas, and that not eating meat is turning Stan into "a giant pussy". In neither of these latter two instances is the word censored.
See also
Profanity
Obscenity
Pussy Galore (disambiguation)
Bitch and Animal, a pair of singers who sang songs including "Pussy Manifesto"
External links
Don't be so beastly! by Justine Hankins. The Guardian, June 14, 2003
Pussy This, Pussy That by Aura Bogado, 2002.
Complete lyrics to the George Clinton song from the Motherpage
Belgium is rich country,sue some Belgian at settlement Plus:)
Translator fical snad pochopia:D
Translator fical snad pochopia:D